In contrast, environmental education programs have sometimes been criticized for overemphasizing content knowledge over student ownership and empowerment ( Fry 2017 Hungerford and Volk 1990). Similarly, OAE programs are known for their experiential nature experiential education is defined by a wide umbrella of learning environments in which students take a direct, active role ( Kolb 1984). 2008 Sibthorp, Paisley, and Gookin 2007), which are recognized as critical “variables” for inspiring responsible environmental behavior ( Hungerford and Volk 1990). While OAE may not emphasize science or ecological knowledge to the same extent as environmental education, OAE organizations consistently deliver gains in student self-perceptions of ownership and empowerment ( Hanna 1995 Hattie et al.
Though OAE organizations often incorporate aspects of environmental education, their primary focus is on personal and social growth. In contrast, environmental education organizations are singularly designed to teach students about ecology or environmental issues ( Priest 1986). Outdoor adventure education (OAE) organizations teach leadership, interpersonal, and wilderness skills in outdoor settings ( Hanna 1995 Priest 1986). Outdoor adventure education: A promising frontier for CS One promising strategy to increase youth participation in CS may be to design projects specifically tailored to youth organizations ( Bonney et al. Accordingly, CS programs that specifically target youth are on the rise, in part due to the perceived potential for these endeavors to generate future environmental advocates ( Ballard et al. Many existing CS projects acknowledge that the majority of their volunteers are middle-aged or older ( Crall et al. In addition to landscape-derived data gaps, certain participant groups remain underrepresented in CS. Because traditional research efforts in these settings may be resource limited ( Jackson, Gergel, and Martin 2015), CS programs that involve hiking clubs and other outdoor-oriented organizations could play a crucial role in monitoring some of these rugged locations ( McDonough MacKenzie et al. 2015 Pauli, Gottfried, and Grabherr 2014). 2017), despite concerns that the impacts of climate change may be intensified at high elevations ( Mavris et al. However, only a handful of projects are systematically generating data in remote, mountainous areas ( Erb, McShea, and Guralnick 2012 Jackson, Gergel, and Martin 2015 McDonough MacKenzie et al. Many successful CS projects focus on urban or backyard habitats and are capable of generating scientific data at an unprecedented scale ( Bonney et al.
At present, however, CS datasets are generated abundantly in certain ecosystems and are limited or non-existent in others.
Citizen science (CS), which involves members of the public in authentic scientific research, has the potential to generate important ecological datasets and, in some cases, influence the values and behaviors of participants ( Ellwood, Crimmins, and Miller-Rushing 2017 McKinley et al.
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